Louis Isadore Kahn And The Salk Institute Essays - Louis Kahn

Louis Isadore Kahn And The Salk Institute Essays - Louis Kahn Louis Isadore Kahn And The Salk Institute Louis Kahn and The Salk Institute Standing alone against the endless blue sea, the Salk Institute by Louis I. Kahn is one of a kind. Louis Kahn's Salk Institute for Biological Studies on the Pacific coast near La Jolla aspires within its own spirit to an order achieved through clarity, definition, and consistency of application(Heyer 195). To many, this magnificent structure may seem out of place, but it works well with the surrounding environment because of the spatial continuity that it possesses. The relation to the site, the tectonic characteristics, and the ideas of servant versus served, combine to achieve a great sense of order in the Salk Institute. Many of the ideas that went into the construction of this design are still utilized in architecture today. Kahn's modern design takes full advantage of the atmosphere by opening up a broad plaza between two research and lab wings providing a view of the beautiful Pacific Ocean and the coastline (Ghirardo 227). The laboratories are separated from the study areas, and each study has a view of the magnificent blue Pacific with horizontal light pouring in. This allows scientists to take a break from their frantic studies and clear their minds with a breath-taking view. In relation to this idea Kahn stated, I separated the studies from the laboratory and placed them over the gardens. Now one need not spend all the time in the laboratories (Ronner 158). The two lab wings are symmetrical about a small stream that runs through the middle of the courtyard and feeds into the ocean. This steady ban of water flowing towards the sea symbolizes the success that human can accomplish. I thought this idea had a worthy presence, considering the Salk Institute is one that promotes research and study. Thus, the courtyard is considered the faade to the sky. Kahn didn't need to dress up the land around the plan because the Salk Institute is the landscape. It is one with the site. Kahn incorporates the use of tectonic characteristics within this design in a number of ways. The materials used included wood, concrete, marble, water, and glass, and they all contributed to the Brutalist notions and simplistic plan. He believed that concrete was the stone of modern man, and therefore it was to be left with exposed joints and formwork markings (Ronner 164). Weathered wood and glass combined with the concrete to construct the outside surface. Kahn also integrated mechanical and electrical services into this architecture, which gave laboratories a new concept. These technologies were hidden in the design to continue Kahn's search for order in the plan. Ceiling and column ideas were also combined to separate the air that you breathe from the air that you throw away. Interlocking volumes are present throughout the structure, all the way down to the details on the furniture (Ghirardo 227). The servant and served spaces in the Salk Institute create a consistent order, which is evident throughout the design. The laboratories act as the served spaces, while the servant spaces are represented by the studies. All of the ideas are initiated in the studies or offices, and the research is carried out in the labs. Therefore, the servant spaces serve the served spaces. These are not the only ways that the served and servant concepts are involved in the institute. An idea that is still used to this day in all forms of architecture is the way the Kahn guides the utilities through the building in an unnoticeable manner. Served spaces and servant spaces are entirely integrated (Scully 36). Kahn also made a service floor under each laboratory which established a very flexible space, and this concept is still used today (Frampton 245). Overlooking the great Pacific, this is no ordinary office building. Louis Kahn used a combination of modern architecture with much simplicity to produc e arguably his greatest feat as an architect. A lot of concepts that he initiated in this plan are still in use all over the world today. The relation to the site, the tectonic characteristics, and the ideas of servant versus served, all work together to achieve a great sense of order in the Salk Institute. Bibliography Frampton,

Andrew Jackson, Indian Removal, and the Trail of Tears

Andrew Jackson, Indian Removal, and the Trail of Tears The Indian Removal policy of President Andrew Jackson was prompted by the desire of white settlers in the South to expand into lands belonging to five Indian tribes. After Jackson succeeded in pushing the Indian Removal Act through Congress in 1830, the U.S. government spent nearly 30 years forcing Indians to move westward, beyond the Mississippi River. In the most notorious example of this policy, more than 15,000 members of the Cherokee tribe were forced to walk from their homes in the southern states to designated Indian Territory in present-day Oklahoma in 1838. Many died along the way. This forced relocation became known as the â€Å"Trail of Tears† because of the great hardship faced by Cherokees. In brutal conditions, nearly 4,000 Cherokees died on the Trail of Tears. Conflicts With Settlers Led to Indian Removal There had been conflicts between whites and Native Americans since the first white settlers arrived in North America. But in the early 1800s, the issue had come down to white settlers encroaching on Indian lands in the southern United States. Five Indian tribes were located on land that would be highly sought for settlement, especially as it was prime land for the cultivation of cotton. The tribes on the land were the Cherokee, Choctaw, Chickasaw, Creek, and Seminole. Over time the tribes in the south tended to adopt white ways such as taking up farming in the tradition of white settlers  and in some cases even buying and owning African American slaves. These efforts at assimilation led to the tribes becoming known as the â€Å"Five Civilized Tribes.† Yet taking up the ways of the white settlers did not mean the Indians would be able to keep their lands. In fact, settlers hungry for land were actually dismayed to see Indians, contrary to all the propaganda about them being savages, adopt the farming practices of the white Americans. The Attitude of Andrew Jackson Toward Indians The accelerated desire to relocate Indians to the West was a consequence of the election of Andrew Jackson in 1828. Jackson had a long and complicated history with Indians, having grown up in frontier settlements where stories of Indian attacks were common. At various times in his early military career, Jackson had been allied with Indian tribes  but had also waged brutal campaigns against Indians. His attitude toward Native Americans was not unusual for the times, though by today’s standards he would be considered a racist as he believed Indians to be inferior to whites. One way to view Jackson’s attitude toward Indians was that he was paternalistic, believing the Indians to be like children who needed guidance. And by that way of thinking, Jackson may well have believed that forcing the Indians to move hundreds of miles westward may have been for their own good, as they would never fit in with white society. Of course, the Indians, not to mention sympathetic white people ranging from religious figures in the North to the backwoods hero turned Congressman Davy Crockett, saw things quite differently. To this day Andrew Jacksons legacy is often tied to his attitudes toward Native Americans. According to an article in the Detroit Free Press in 2016, many Cherokees, to this day, will not use $20 bills because they bear the likeness of Jackson. Cherokee Leader John Ross Fought Against Indian Removal Policies The political leader of the Cherokee tribe, John Ross, was the son of a Scottish father and a Cherokee mother. He was destined for a career as a merchant, as his father had been, but became involved in tribal politics and in 1828 Ross was elected the tribal chief of the Cherokee. In 1830, Ross and the Cherokee took the audacious step of trying to retain their lands by filing suit against the state of Georgia. The case eventually went to the U.S. Supreme Court, and Chief Justice John Marshall, while avoiding the central issue, ruled that the states could not assert control over the Indian tribes. According to legend, President Jackson scoffed, saying, â€Å"John Marshall has made his decision; now let him enforce it. And no matter what the Supreme Court ruled, the Cherokees did face serious obstacles. Vigilante groups in Georgia attacked them, and John Ross was nearly killed in one attack. Indian Tribes Were Forcibly Removed In the 1820s, the Chickasaws, under pressure, began moving westward. The U.S. Army began forcing the Choctaws to move in 1831. The French author Alexis de Tocqueville, on his landmark trip to America, witnessed a party of Choctaws struggling to cross the Mississippi with great hardship in the dead of winter. The leaders of the Creeks were imprisoned in 1837, and 15,000 Creeks were forced to move westward. The Seminoles, based in Florida, managed to fight a long war against the U.S. Army until they finally moved westward in 1857. The Cherokees Were Forced to Move Westward Along the Trail of Tears Despite legal victories by the Cherokees, the United States government began to force the tribe to move west, to present-day Oklahoma, in 1838. A considerable force of the U.S. Army more than 7,000 men was ordered by President Martin Van Buren, who followed Jackson in office, to remove the Cherokees. General Winfield Scott commanded the operation, which became notorious for the cruelty shown to the Cherokee people. Soldiers in the operation later expressed regret for what they had been ordered to do. Cherokees were rounded up in camps and farms which had been in their families for generations were awarded to white settlers. The forced march of more than 15,000 Cherokees began in late 1838. And in the cold winter ​conditions, nearly 4,000 Cherokee died while trying to walk the 1,000 miles to the land where they had been ordered to live. The forced relocation of the Cherokee thus became known as the â€Å"Trail of Tears.†